Posts tagged Exercise

Wilson and Brookfield (2009) examined how setting goals might influence motivation and adherence of people engaged in a six week exercise program. They involved sixty recreational exercisers and divided them randomly in three main groups.

The individuals in the first group received a process goal. Fifteen exercisers were given a personal goal linked to performance (e.g. “maintain the heart rate above a certain amount of beats per minute in a 30 min section”) discussed in advance with one of the authors, who also re-assessed it on a weekly basis.

The second group of fifteen were given an outcome goal which also had fifteen exercisers. They each had a personal outcome (e.g. losing 4 kgs in six weeks) goal discussed in advance with one of the authors. The eventual achievement of participants’ goals was assessed at the end of the exercise program.

The final group was the control group which had thirty people without any formally established goals.

The results supported the initial hypothesis by the authors that people engaged in the process goal group will have a higher level of intrinsic (internal) motivation, adherence, and a lower level of tension and pressure was confirmed by the results. However, there was not a significant difference in motivation and pressure/tension between exercisers in the outcome goal group and the ones belonging to the control group.

This study has some limitations concerning the role of extrinsic goals and the exercise leader. Moreover, the authors were not able to have full control over the participants setting their own personal exercise goals and the exercise history of the subjects might also have created a bias.

However, the authors suggest that “setting and focusing on process goals facilitate autonomy, competence and relatedness in an exercise context”. In addition, goal setting also seems to have had a positive impact on the persistence of exercising the the duration of the program. On the other hand, Ordonez and colleagues (2009) in their study in the history of business cases, identified some side effects associated with goal setting which include a narrower focus, distorted risk preferences, possible unethical behavior, and reduced intrinsic motivation. In particular, they reported how setting goals increase external motivation but has a negative impact upon intrinsic motivation by forcing people to engage in “a task for its own sake”. Consequently, cheating seems to be a commonly engaged in behavior.

As a result, the authors suggest that goal setting be done by experts who will need to pay attention to the harmful side effects of goal setting under “close supervision”. Moreover, concerning adherence and practical issues in the study, Courneya’s (2010) article on methodological and conceptual distinctions among exercise trials, suggests how researchers are likely to develop or adopt behavioral support interventions intensive enough to strengthen exercise program adherence over the research period of time. In addition, he underlines how a supervised exercise protocol might be available in special and dedicated settings but not in common spaces.

In conclusion: to set goals or not to set goals? This seems to be the problem. These researchers seem to support goal setting but, due to its complexity and possible risks, a professional and competent sport psychologist might be the best person to structure it. Moreover, he or she can objectively evaluate the environmental resources and tailor the exercise intervention and goals in collaboration with either a personal trainer, a coach or possibly a team.

Main article:
Wilson, K., Brookfield D. (2009). Effect of goal setting on motivation and adherence in a six-week exercise program. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6, 89-100.

Other cited studies:
Courneya, K. S. (2010). Efficacy, effectiveness, and behavior change trials in exercise research. International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition and Physical Activity, 7 (81), 1-12.

Ordonez, L.D., Schwitzer, M. E., Galinsky, A. D., Bazerman, M. H. (2009). Goals gone wild: the systematic side effects of overprescribing goal setting. Academy of Management Perspective, 23(1), 6-16.

Natascia Bernardi  is currently a master’s student in Sport Psychology at Lund University in Sweden. She graduated in Clinical and Community Psychology at the University of Bologna in 2002 and received a post-graduate diploma in Hypnosis and Ericksonian Psychotherapy. She has been working with athletes and teams since 2004 and has written several articles for Italian scientific journals and web sites.

I looked at their unblinking eyes; fixed upon….well it was just a box. They stared and stared at it, not talking, not moving, only occasionally making a grunted laughter. I couldn’t explain it, but it was drawing me also. I didn’t want to sit there hour after hour just looking at it. I mean, it was just a box. There were surely better things to do. That’s when I decided to leave, to escape Zombieland or what everyone else calls them “screens”.

Honestly, thinking about the amount of time I have wasted watching television, playing video-games or searching for pointless things on the internet, makes me mad. Mad that I could have used this time more productively, more enjoyably, more real. Being interested in sedentary behaviours, you could assume that health reasons (risk of chronic diseases) are my priority, but they are a close second (although still serious). My real annoyance is time wastage. I have wasted both leisure time and work time.

I made my first attempt to leave Zombieland about a year ago. I thought it best to leave slowly, progressively further from the boxes and allowing myself to be drawn in less and less. But this was futile, even if I pulled myself away from several boxes, I found myself being trapped by one and brought back to the very beginning again, staring with the other Zombies. I decided the only way to do it would be to make a run for it.

And that’s what I did; I ran and didn’t look back. I no longer cared what might happen at the end of a TV show, about the next level in a video-game or the 83rd status update on Facebook. I didn’t care how a person on YouTube “failed”, or what caption someone humorously wrote under a weird picture of a cat. I was free. But it seemed too easy, why didn’t I feel drawn to the boxes anymore?

I didn’t consider this problem for long because I had a new realisation. What was I meant to do now? These hours staring at boxes were wasted yes, but they were a large part of my life. How would I replace them? There were many things I wanted to do, some inspired by the people in the boxes. But how was I to do them? I began spending my new time researching the Zombie problem (i.e. screen behaviour) but this is not really living. I had to start doing the things I wanted, I began hiking through lands without boxes and socialising more with Zombies during their breaks from boxes. I learned more about my interests, I read for pleasure and actually used psychological skills we spent so much time learning about (particularly meditation and goal-setting).

Now and again I was re-captured. Sometimes after socialising with the Zombies, I would be too weary the next day to resist the call of the boxes. Or when I visited home for Christmas, I was ambushed by other Zombies. But each time I have escaped and now I get captured rarely. I developed new ways to help me resist the boxes. I plan my days fuller, in order to avoid the calls in boredom. I do many activities each day after my working hours. Replacing the time seems to be the greatest resistance for me.

How do I feel now? Great is the simplest and truest answer. I do not know what is happening in whatever the popular series is now, about new movies that rip off older movies or about what weird name some celebrity has given their kid. Whoever said ignorance was bliss must have been referring to these pointless things. I have more time, I feel happier, I learn more, I read more, I do more, I even sleep better. All in all, everything is better and I hope never to return to that way of “living”, and I would advise you fellow Zombies to at least think about it (if you can!). Are these screens really making your life better, happier? Or are you missing out on something better? Maybe soon I will have more escapees in my company.

P.S. If you think “zombies” is a harsh term, look at someone while they watch a screen, then tell me if I am wrong.

Shane O’Leary is currently a master’s degree student in Sport and Exercise Psychology at the University of Thessaly (Greece).  He graduated with first class honors with a bachelor’ degree in Sport and Exercise Sciences at the University of Limerick (Ireland).  His current research interests are motivation in exercise and sedentary behavior. 

Finding a School, Taking the GRE / TOEFL, and writing Personal Statements

In October last year, I had to start thinking about my future. Since I was already a year into my master’s studies, I had to determine what I wanted my future to be like. We often think about those things but when the crunch sets in, the reality does hit us hard. Decisions need to be made! The options were to further pursue my education or try to get a job in the field of sport and exercise psychology back home in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. A realization that there is a very slight chance of finding my ideal job back home, combined with my desire to continue to learn more about the field I fell in love with during my master’s studies, made me come up with a decision to apply to PhD programs in the field of sport and exercise psychology in the US. This decision,  came after much contemplation. Not to mention, it was a big bite to chew considering I only had a few months to take the GRE and complete the application process. For those who are thinking of applying to PhD programs in the US, I would have to advise you to make this decision long before the application deadline. Application deadlines in the US are earlier than most of the ones in Europe. In my experience, most PhD program application deadlines are either December 1^st or January 15^th. Additionally, I had to continue working on my master’s studies, so my academic life during the months of applying to PhD programs became very challenging. I realized that what I had learned in my master’s program had given me the skills to be able to juggle all of those things at once.

In order to select the schools and programs I was going to apply to, I talked to some of my current mentors. They gave me a great guidance as to which schools/programs fit my future career goals. I also investigated potential mentors at various schools in order to identify those with whom I had a desire to work. That helped my selection process in terms of what schools I was going to apply to. I chose those programs that had well-established sport psychology programs, which had ongoing research that fully fit my research interests.

As far as the actual application process, it would be an understatement to say that it was challenging. I found myself overwhelmed. There was too much information, too many rules. I was lucky to have a sister who had recently earned her PhD in the US, so she was able to advise me on many things and what to focus on. One helpful thing  was first choosing the programs I was going to apply to, and then organizing the required information into folders and files, collecting information from schools’ and programs’ websites. That way, I was able to start collecting the necessary documentation and preparing for the GRE simultaneously. Another tip is to also start studying for the GRE early, and schedule an appointment to take it as early as possible.. Moreover, depending on the closest city where one can take this exam, the computer-based option may not be possible, but only the paper-based one.  My advice, take the computer-based GRE, as that gives you a little more privacy when taking the exam. I obtained a Kaplan GRE book to prepare for the exam. This book was helpful and provided me with practice exams which I had taken to prepare for the real thing.

If you are a non-native English speaker, you may also have to take a TOEFL exam.. I had TOEFL exam scores from when I was applying to the Erasmus Mundus program, so I reported those scores: which are valid for two years. All scores, GRE and TOEFL, have to be reported officially by the testing company. However, you can report up to 4 free scores at the end of the exam (both GRE and TOEFL), so try to decide what schools you are applying to before then. 

During the application process, I realized that many schools require very similar things. Once you get a hang of it with a couple of schools, it becomes easier. Of course, some programs ask for specific things, so those were a bit of a curve ball. However, I have to strongly advise you on asking your professors or other associates for their recommendation letters as early as possible. They are very busy people, so do give them time. It is your responsibility to remind them about recommendation letter deadlines (yes, let’s face it, we are not the most important people in their lives)!! Most schools have their applications online now, so you can upload necessary documentation instead of mailing it. Some documents, i.e. official transcripts, will have to be mailed, though. If you are planning on pursuing additional education after your current program, it is a good idea to pay attention to how well you are doing in your classes. Schools ask for official transcripts so they do care about your grades, as should you probably. :)

I also invested some time in finding good tips for writing strong letters of purpose/personal statements. They all seem to agree on one thing: use specific examples of how you accomplished something that would make you a suitable candidate for that program. Do not shy away from using some personal stories about yourself, as long as they make a point you are trying to emphasize. Additionaly, do not put everything you can possibly put about yourself in a personal statement: choose wisely. Think about what makes you different from many other candidates.

After  finishing with the application process, I felt like a heavy stone has been lifted from my shoulders. I had invested a lot of time and energy into this process, so I sincerely hope it will pay off. Luckily, I will keep busy while waiting for decisions from my prospective programs, as I have to work on my master’s thesis. Good luck to everyone who is applying and I hope this information will be helpful to you!

Adisa Haznadar is a second year master student in sport and exercise psychology at the University of Thessaly in Greece. She completed her Bachelor in Psychology (2009) at the University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Her area of interest and current research area are psychological skills and their implementation; mainly self-talk. 

adisahaznadar@hotmail.com 

This year’s AASP conference was more than just chilled Mai Tais on the sunny beaches of Hawaii. It was an enlightening experience filled with skilled keynote speakers, new focuses including the direction of mentorship, ethics, the celebration of diversity and certification. I’ll share with you some of the highlights and what I considered the take-home messages from the 26^th  annual conference for the Association for Applied Sport Psychology.

Mentorship Emphasis

My first session was a pre-conference workshop on mentorship. AASP has recently started to call for supervision mentorship now as supervisors were previously reluctant to supervise students due to the legal liabilities attached with the title. To my understanding, although the goal of providing guidance and protecting the client remains the same as supervision, mentorship was more informal, collegial, long lasting, and holistic (ensuring well-being of the mentee, as well as the client’s).

Although quality supervision is an essential element in training competent practitioners (and researchers), it was found that many practitioners in applied sport psychology lacked formal training in how to be good supervisors/mentors (Watson, Zizzi, Etzel, & Lubker, 2004). Moreover, because Watson et al.’s measures were only focused on the frequency and type of supervision, the current quality of supervision is generally unknown.

Thus, starting this year, AASP is offering a workshop on mentorship to provide information and guidance of how to be a good mentor. The need for on-going supervision for all practitioners was discussed too (which can often take the form of consulting with colleagues rather than a supervisor). Forming an on-going peer supervision group was one suggestion that I found really useful. The group can learn from each other’s experiences, issues and struggles, discuss solutions and share reflections. Some students even continued their peer supervision groups beyond graduation which might be something I’d like to see in our group too! It would be a nice additional resource that we can use to provide better services.

Ethics

The pre-conference workshop and symposium on ethics were enlightening and confusing at the same time. I always feel that ethics is never clear-cut and filled with grey areas, but we (students especially) don’t give it enough thought. Although the sessions offered useful and practical ethical decision making guidelines and resources, they also made me scratch my head. Something I had never considered before were the newly emerging ethical issues with the advent of technology. How do you provide consulting from a distance or online? For example, do you really know who your client is? How do you ensure confidentiality when consulting via Skype? Will anyone else read the texts/emails you send your clients? Apparently, the U.S. government may be keeping records of all our emails.

Moreover, what does it mean to be available 24 hours a day? One suggestion was to prepare a teletherapy waiver ( informing your client of the limitations in confidentiality, services, etc.) In addition to understanding the process of consulting online, we also are advised to evaluate whether we are competent in maneuvering the equipment and whether we understand their implications. I have included references (provided by Dr. Jack Watson) in the reference list below for those who would like to learn more about online therapy.

Merely sitting at the invited ethics address made me feel wiser but after sitting for days thinking of how to summarize the main points from the lecture; I’ve found it impossible. Though eye-opening, I feel I have understood very little and only left with numerous questions while desiring to learn more. How does one think provocatively and critically? How am I supposed to question tradition? How am I supposed to push the agenda forward?

Celebrating Diversity

There was a wealth of various topics at the conference: working with diverse clients, novel applications of sport psychology (e.g., military, performing arts, hospital settings) and alternative methodological approaches. With increased work in diverse settings, many presenters also emphasized the need for contextual intelligence and emotional competence. It was good to see the field branch out from a narrow focus on performance enhancement and also made me hopeful of the field and its great promise. I’m further comforted and confident in my decision to continue to PhD studies (I WILL have a job and pay back my student loans!).

However, one suggestion I have for those who want to present a diverse MST applications in future AASP conferences is to know your audience. Some presenters spent valuable time reviewing MST techniques to an audience quite fully aware of it while it could have been better spent presenting the process and the uniqueness each case. Regardless, I hope AASP continues to celebrate diversity!

Certification

I, with annoying persistence, repeatedly asked of the option for international students to become certified. How was I supposed to meet the required practical hours without a certified consultant around to supervise/mentor me? My only option seemed to be to contact certified consultants overseas and ask for distance supervision. From the discussions at the mentorship workshop however, it seemed pretty clear that supervisors/mentors were reluctant to start supervision relationships with students they didn’t know especially from a distance.

The answer from AASP certification review committee chairs was to find a competent supervisor locally and send the supervisor’s credentials to AASP for approval. Only after AASP reviews the credentials and approves the supervisor can one start logging practicum hours towards certification. Nevertheless, take note that this approved supervisor can only supervise one student towards AASP certification. The supervisor would need to become certified to serve as a supervisor for other students. Although this makes certification more attainable, I still wondered whether international students/scholars would go through such a hassle where AASP certification might not mean as much.

Which brings me to another question: is AASP that relevant internationally? With the 90 dollar student fee (compared to the 15 euros to join ENYSPP) and travel costs to such distant locations, it’s not hard to see why it’s a bit of a deterrent when ENYSPP or ISSP are much more accessible to European students. Even some of the renowned experts from the US don’t bother with AASP certification. This may not be a problem in general, but it becomes tricky if AASP wants to stress certification and make it a general requirement for all practitioners in the field.

I am in complete agreement that certification should be required to ensure a standard of practice worldwide. Nevertheless, I believe AASP needs to make AASP more accessible and appropriate for international students and professionals for certification to truly take meaning. I believe an international outreach is a must for AASP to become a truly representitive organization of the field.

Overall, I enjoyed the wide scope of topics and research that were presented at the conference. I was especially impressed with all the keynotes! (It’s unfair that they are all smart AND funny!) They provided much food-for-thought and also offered great suggestions for future research which I, as a student, appreciate immensely. I hope to see AASP continue efforts towards a more multidisciplinary field. Though I will miss the amazing Hawaiian sun and beaches, I am definitely looking forward to the next annual conference!!

~

Watson, J. C., II, Zizzi, S., Etzel, E., & Lubker, J. (2004). Applied sport psychology supervision: A survey of students and professionals. The Sport Psychologist, 18, 415-429.  

Resources to help learn more about online therapy:

http://flcertificationboard.org/Certifications_E-Therapy.cfm 

https://www.ismho.org/suggestions.asp 

Links for training in online therapy:

http://www.onlinetherapyinstitute.com/

Sammy Lee has a M.Sc. in Sport and Exercise Psychology from the University of Jyväskylä (Finland) and a M.Sc. from the University of Leipzig (Germany) in Diagnostics and Intervention. Sammy also graduated from Ewha Womans University (South Korea) with a B.A. in Sport and Exercise Science and Psychology. 

A range of sub-disciplines of psychology such as sport and exercise psychology, social psychology, and cognitive psychology have long held the common objective of identifying the psychological variables that permit performers to function at their best. Certainly, research on the psychological constructs of motivation (Kim, Williams, & Gill, 2003), self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997), self-regulation (Higgins, 1997; Ryan & Deci, 2000), and attention (Beilock, Carr, MacMahon, & Starkes, 2002) has been conducted across diverse skill domains from sports skills to cognitive tasks in an attempt to elucidate common psychological principles that promote optimal performance in every context of sport and physical activity.

Hamilton (2000) examined empirical evidence for a range of influences that may contribute to East African running dominance including environmental, social, psychological, and physiological variables. After examining research from various disciplines, he concluded that there was no clear explanation for the East African supremacy. However, Hamilton argued that psychological factors may perpetuate this dominance by attributing differences between African and white running performances to stable external factors, thereby disempowering white runners and empowering East African runners.

Regardless of the possible existence of physiological advantages in East African runners, belief that such differences exist creates a psychological atmosphere that can have significant consequences on performance. From my perspective, I can spot the hidden hand of mental skill in these Ethiopian and Kenyan athletes. Their commitment, dedication, hope, discipline, hard working attitude, work ethic and consistency must be based somewhere on the supporting shoulders of mental skill training.

In the case of African countries like Ethiopia and Kenya, sport psychology might not be just the scientific way to promote optimal performance, rather according to Jarvie (2006), it might mean survival. Motivation for athletic success may be shaped and influenced by social and cultural forces including living standards. Jarvie (2006, p.374) says, “to a European athlete, an Olympic gold medal is the pinnacle of his or her career; however for an athletes from a developing country it may simply be a gateway to earn money that will transform the lives of the athlete and his or her community”.

I believe it is more than just hoping for a better life. In situations like these, athletic participation also allows children to dream of becoming tomorrow’s sport icon in countries where national identity, pride and honor is so culturally vital and revered.

Thus the need for mental skill training with proper and scientific physical training is unquestionable! As a result, I can say Ethiopian athletes need quality and scientifically based sport psychology just like anyone else.

Generally, sport psychology (mental skills training) has helped people regardless of socioeconomic status, goal specificity, performance level, sport and physical activity. Its ease in application and cost-effectiveness will be especially beneficial where living standards are low, facilities are scarce, and where people rely on athletics as a means of survival.

~

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.

Beilock, S. L., Carr, T. H., MacMahon, C., & Starkes, J. L. (2002). When paying attention becomes counterproductive: Impact of divided versus skill focused attention on novice and experienced performance of sensory motor skills. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8, 6-16.

Hamilton B. (2000). East African running dominance: what is behind it? British Journal of Sports Medicine, 34, 391–394.

Higgins, E.T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American psychologist, 52, 280-1300.           

Javier G. (2006). Sport, culture and society: An introduction. Oxford , England : Routledge    

Kane M. (1971). An assessment of ‘‘Black is best.’’ Sports Illustrated, 34, 72–83.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). An overview of self determination theory. In E. L. Deci, & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3-33). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.

Likawunt Wendwosen is currently a master’s degree student in Sport and Exercise Psychology at the University of Thessaly (Greece). He graduated with a bachelor’s degree from Addis Ababa University (Ethiopia).

The typical woman of the 19^th century walked an average of 10 kilometers a day. The modern day woman on the other hand, may drive the same distance and take the elevator to the second floor. “Technology,” – some might say is to blame. With the development of modern facilities and transportation means, we’ve in many ways replaced health with convenience!

Furthermore, convenience also comes in pill-form with solutions to all of our modern day “ailments”. The list is endless. Feeling down? Pop a pill. From high blood pressure, to lack of energy, to lazy leg syndrome, there’s nearly a pill fit for every inadequacy. Good, right? Well, yes and no. Obviously the necessity of medicine is still necessary (please don’t throw away your anti-fungal foot cream just yet!).

While medicine is still essential for the treatment and prevention of certain diseases and conditions, an active lifestyle intervention can provide a cheaper (for person and country) and in many cases a superior physical and mental health outcome. However, if it seems so easy, why the need for these bright and attractive new specialists – exercise psychologists? Well we may know what sport psychologists can do but what are these mysterious exercisers up to? In several simple examples, we can see what exercise psychologists can do for the everyday person.

Ø  I come to the gym and I don’t know where to start my exercises. Exercise psychology specialists can help me understand why I came to gym in the first place, how to reach my goals, how to stick with my program.

Ø  Jane notices that her child spends all day playing videogames and its beginning to affect the child’s health. Exercise psychologists can give the family recommendations on how to be more active (to be honest Jane and her husband spend quite a lot of time watching TV too), improve their health without the regrets.

Ø  Heart diseases, diabetes, depression and anxiety disorders. What do they have to do with physical activity? It is scientifically proven that if we exercise, we lower the chances of illness and speed up recovery.

Ø  My grandma does not want to go for a walk every day; she says it is getting harder. Yet, every time she goes for a stroll she feels better. Exercise psychologists can help tap into her motivations to keep that spring in her step.

One might complain exercising is “hard” and “I don’t have the time”. Well this is where the mind works on the body. Many people claim that they simply don’t have the time to exercise. We could reply with, “Do you want to spend 30 minutes of your day exercising or 24 hours of your day dead?” (we tend not be that cruel). In such a case, a breakdown of the hours of the day may shed some light on some free hours of one’s day. Even people who want to exercise have difficulty staying continuously active. An exercise psychologist can help motivate people, counsel them and design an effective program for a person to start and keep living actively.

The full importance of exercise and the psychology of exercise cannot be outlined here. People are becoming more aware of the link between exercise and health and even the importance of mental health. Due to this, there is a growing attention to the area. Work must continue to further enhance awareness and to improve exercise behaviour globally.

So now that we’ve effectively contributed to your sitting and reading this informative post, it’s time take your grandfather’s walking stick and monocle out for an educated walk and talk about the pleasures of active living!

- Lisa Novoradovskaya & Shane O’Leary

Lisa Novoradovskaya is currently a master’s degree student in Sport and Exercise Psychology at University of Jyväskylä (Finland) and gradutated with honors with a bachelor’s degree in social psychology from the Russian State University for the Humanities (Moscow, Russia).  Her current research area is in sedentary behavior and promotion of physical activity. 

Shane O’Leary is currently a master’s degree student in Sport and Exercise Psychology at the University of Thessaly (Greece).  He graduated with first class honors with a bachelor’ degree in Sport and Exercise Sciences at the University of Limerick (Ireland).  His current research interests are motivation in exercise and sedentary behavior.